Problem Gambling and Women who Embezzle.

Women in the United States are developing problem gambling, which sometimes reaches the level of Pathological Gambling, a diagnosable mental disorder at rapidly increasing rates. Recent research efforts have increased the understanding of the psychology of problem gambling, including the roles played by depression and anxiety, personality variables, cognitions and biological factors. According to Toneatto and Millar (2004), research results have indicated that there is a correlation between problem gambling and depressive symptoms, symptoms of anxiety and obsessive compulsiveness and impulsivity. Research focused on gender differences (Grant and Kim, 2003) suggests, “Women are more triggered to gamble by feelings of loneliness and dysphoria (depression) as compared with men. Further, women’s motivations for gambling include escape from personal or family problems, whereas men gamble more for excitement and to win money.”

There is some evidence that women who develop gambling problems are more likely to be living with someone with a gambling or drinking problem, but to have fewer alcohol and legal problems themselves (Ladd and Petry, 2002). In addition, a 2009 research study (Afifi, Brownridge, MacMillan and Sareen) suggests that the presence of marital violence is “associated with higher rates of gambling.” Lesieur and Blume (1991) hypothesize that gambling may be a very specific activity that women use to deal with, especially distract themselves, from marital abuse. Further, a study by Scannell (2000) indicates that, “Women employ more emotion-focused coping strategies such as avoidance and self-blame, which in turn lead to reduced control over gambling behavior.”

Although findings are still preliminary, some research has also begun to identify biological factors involved in pathological gambling. Specifically, research suggests that there are genetic factors indicating some familial hereditability of problem gambling behavior. Biological research has also indicated that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex may be involved in decision-making regarding pathological gambling. In addition the orbital frontal cortex may be involved “in the processing of rewards during the expectancy and experiencing of monetary gains or losses” (Toneatto and Millar, 2004). There are additional neuropsychological findings which suggest that there may be a neurotransmitter dysfunction involved in the development of pathological gambling which can be treated with the use of pharmacological agents (Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) 1999.)

Problem gambling is also sometimes a factor for women who embezzle funds from their employer. During the last several years, I have evaluated 18 women charged with embezzlement, ten facing Federal charges and seven in State Court. We have just begun to analyze our data, but a number of patterns appear to stand out. Unlike other female criminal defendants, almost none of these women had previous criminal charges, drug/alcohol problems or major mental illness other than depression, anxiety and PTSD. A significant number were motivated by “higher loyalties,” primarily related to meeting a variety of needs of their families (e.g., shelter, medical care) or responding to direct requests or indirect pressure from a male partner, spouse or boyfriend (none of whom were indicted) in order to preserve that relationship. Two other relevant motivational factors have emerged in this group of women charged with embezzlement: their involvement in problem gambling and the behavior of compulsive spending, often to purchase items and pleasurable activities (e.g., vacations) for themselves and their families to distract themselves from psychological problems and distress. Even though relationship problems were not as predominant in these women, they were often in the background. In all of the cases of women charged with embezzlement, results of the forensic psychological evaluation were used either for plea negotiations, sentencing or both.

 Bibliography

Afifi, T. O., Brownridge, D. A., MacMillan, H., & Sareen, J. (2009).  The relationship of gambling to intimate partner violence and child maltreatment in a nationally representative sample.  Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44, 331-337.

Benson, M. L., & Moore, E. (1992).  Are white-collar and common offenders the same? An empirical and theoretical critique of a recently proposed general theory of crime.  Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 251-272.

Coleman, J. W. (2002).  The criminal elite: Understanding white-collar crime.  New York, NY:Worth Publishers.  Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (1999).  Pathological gambling:A critical review.  Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Cressey, D. (1973).  Other people’s money: A study in the social psychology of embezzlement.New Jersey, NJ: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.

Davies, P. (2008).  Is economic crime a man’s game?  Feminist Theory, 4, 283-303.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2009).  Uniform crime report: Crime in the United States. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Grant, J. E., & Kim, S. W. (2003).  Gender differences in pathological gamblers seeking  medication treatment.  Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 56–62.

Klenowski, P. M. (2008).  “Other people’s money”: An empirical examination of the motivational differences between male and female white collar offenders (Doctoral dissertation).  Retrieved from Proquest Dissertation and Theses.  (UMI No. 3303104)

Ladd, G. T., & Petry, N. M. (2002).  Gender differences among pathological gamblers seeking treatment.  Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 302-309.

Leeper-Piquero, N. & Benson, M. (2004).  White-collar crime and criminal careers: Specifying a trajectory of punctuated situational offending.  Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 20, 148-165.

Lesieur, H. R., & Blume, S. B. (1991).  Evaluation of patients treated for pathological gambling in a combined alcohol, substance abuse and pathological gambling treatment unit using the Addiction Severity Index.  British Journal of Addiction, 86, 1017-1028.

Poortinga, E., Lemmen, C. & Jibson, M. (2006).  A case control study: White-collar defendants compared with defendants charged with other nonviolent theft.  The Journal of theAmerican Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 34, 82-89.

Scannell, E. D., Quirk, M. M., Smith, K., Maddern, R., & Dickerson, M. (2000).  Females’ coping styles and control over poker machine gambling.  Journal of Gambling Studies,16, 417-432.

Toneatto, T., & Millar, G. (2004).  Assessing and treating problem gambling: Empirical status and promising trends.  Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 517-524.

Unwin, B. K., Davis, M. K., & De Leeuw, J. B. (2000).  Pathologic gambling.  American FamilyPhysician, 61, 741-749.

Zietz, D. (1981).  Women who embezzle or defraud: A study of convicted felons.  New York, NY: Praeger Publishers.